World Bank

The United Nations has a provision for providing financial assistance and monetary relief for member states. These organizations are the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Both the World Bank and the International Monetary fund were products of the Bretton Woods Agreement which took place in 1945, approximately around the time the United Nations was created. Initially the purpose of the Bretton Woods Agreement was to raise and distribute funds in order to reconstruct a post WWII war-torn Europe. There are some key differences between the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank and it is important to be able to differentiate between the two. Though they are always grouped together, they each serve certain key purposes.

The World Bank is a financial institution that provides financial and technical assistance to developing nations for programs such as bridges, roads, school, etc. World Bank loans are ultimately meant to reduce poverty in these nations. The World Bank is broken up into two sub-institutions: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Association. As previously mentioned, the primary reason for the World Bank at the time of its creation was to help rebuild a devastated Europe, therefore the first loan given out by the World Bank was $250 Million to France to help rebuild their country after WWII. Its duties and purposes have naturally grown over the years to incorporate many other needs.

Currently, the World Bank is directing most of its focus towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals by lending mostly to “middle income nations” with fairly low interest rates. The World Bank recognizes five key factors as necessary additions for economic growth and the creation of a better business environment. These factors are to strengthen government/educate government officials, create infrastructure, develop financial systems, fight corruption, and finally to offer a forum for research, consulting, and training programs.

The purpose of the World Bank is to provide financial assistance; they do this in the form of loans and grants. Loans come in two types: investment loans and developmental policy loans. Investment loans are meant to support economic and social development projects and developmental policy loans provide quick disbursing finance to support countries’ policy and intuitional reforms. The World Bank will also issue grants to enable countries to enact development programs. Grants are typically used for debt relief, improving sanitation and water supply, combating HIV/AIDS, supporting civil society organizations, and help with the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

The International Monetary Fund is an institution that oversees the global financial system by following macroeconomic policies of its member countries in regards to topics such as exchange rates and the balance of payments. The International Monetary fund was created in order to stabilize foreign exchange rates and facilitates developments. Like the World Bank, it also offers financial and technical assistance to its members; however the International Monetary Fund is a lender of last resort. The International Monetary Fund’s main goals are to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment, sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty. To be a member of the International Monetary Fund there are several terms that the member states adhere to such as membership fees and voting rights. The International Monetary Fund will also advise and make recommendations to member countries to improve their economies. During this economic climate, the International Monetary Fund is being called upon more and more for financial assistance.

Both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are financial institutions that transcend borders however; there are differences to be noted. World Bank is mostly associated with loans and grants while the International Monetary Fund is the epicenter of the global monetary system.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a charter accepted and adopted by the United Nations. Officially, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is part of the International Bill of Human Rights which is an informal title given to two treaties created by the United Nations. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights came into being after WWII and it is representative of the first time in history where the world was mobilized to establish rights that all human beings are innately born with.

After the atrocities committed in Nazi Germany, there was a need for something of this nature as one of the United Nation’s main goals was to reiterate fundamental human rights for all. Several people were involved in drafting the United Nations, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the forerunner being John Peters Humphrey. At the time of the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights he was the Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat. The Commission on Human Rights was commissioned to take on this project after Humphrey provided them with the initial draft. The United Nations wanted the members of this commission to be representative of the world and it was a very diverse group of people originating from countries ranging from Australia, Iran, and Yugoslavia to just name a few. A very famous author of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was Eleanor Roosevelt who was the chairman.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948 by a landslide vote. No countries were against this charter, while 8 abstained; these countries were Soviet Bloc states. As of 1998, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. Every year on December 10, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is commemorated and it is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has not only been adopted by the United Nations and been integral in many of their efforts but it has also become a part of customary international law. Customary international law is the basis of practice in the International Court of Justice. Apart from being institutional in international law and the United Nations, this charter has also had a tremendous influence in the constitutions of other countries. Furthermore, this document has also served as the foundation for two major United Nations human rights covenants.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has received both praise and criticism from dignitaries across the world. Officials around the world including Pope John Paul II as well as organizations such as the EU have praised this document. However, in certain parts of the world this charter does not have the same creed. Primarily in Islamic countries such as Sudan, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia there has been criticism for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Their argument is that the charter does not take into account cultural and religious factors. While there is a certain level of criticism for this declaration, it is for the most part one of the defining pieces of work in the 20th century and has had a tremendously positive influence worldwide.

United States Ambassador to the United Nations

The United States Ambassador to the United Nations is the face of America at the United Nations General Assembly. The United States has a permanent position in the United Nations General Assembly; therefore this is an incredibly important role in international diplomacy.

Former United States Ambassadors to the United Nations have been prominent U.S. politicians and diplomats. Past United States Ambassadors to the United Nations include Henry Cabot Lodge, Adlai Stevenson, George H. W. Bush, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Madeleine Albright, and Bill Richardson. In the Clinton administration, the position of United States Ambassador to the United Nations was a cabinet level position; it is the same way under Obama’s administration as well; it was not a cabinet position under George W. Bush. The incumbent United States Ambassador to the United Nations under Obama’s administration is Susan Rice. Prior to being the United States Ambassador to the United Nations she was the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Adviser to President Clinton on national security, and the Foreign Policy Advisor to the presidential campaigns of Michael Dukakis, John Kerry, and Barack Obama.

In this position, Susan Rice will be one of the most well known faces in Obama’s administration to the outside world. As the United States Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice will be a strong and forceful advocate of stronger action. She has been especially vocal about the crisis in Darfur, and it is on her agenda to stop the killings. This is an especially delicate position for Susan Rice, after the Bush administration left United States relations with the UN somewhat tense. Former United States Ambassador to the United Nations, John Bolton under the Bush administration did not offer a comment about Obama’s selection but did voice some concern that it was going to be a cabinet level position. According to John Bolton, it will overstate the importance the United Nations should have on United State foreign policy.

It really must be reiterated that during this time, the selection of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is quite integral. The Bush administration left a slightly sour taste in their mouth with disregard for many recommendations. One of the most well known United States Ambassadors to the United Nations under the Bush administration was John Bolton and as mentioned in the quote above his views towards to United Nations are not very positive. In fact, John Bolton has been a staunch critic of the United Nations for a large part of his career. His exact words are: “There is no such thing as the United Nations, There is only the international community, which can only be led by the only remaining superpower, which is the United States.” Naturally, those views don’t go very far in an international body where countries are all considered equal. Therefore, selecting the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is a very important decision and it is important that the new representative is somebody who is willing to work with the United Nations to reach a general consensus instead of viewing America as the sole power. The United States Ambassador to the United Nations is a very critical role as it represents America to the international community. The United States Ambassador to the United Nations is essentially our ambassador to the world in many ways, therefore one cannot underestimate the value of this decision and the responsibility that Susan Rice has.

The United Nations

The United Nations is an international organization which “aims to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace.” The United Nations was founded in 1945 after WWII and it replaced the League of Nations. The purpose of the United Nations during its creation was to end wars between nations and give countries a forum for dialogue between each other. The United Nations currently boasts 192 member states, which includes nearly every recognized independent state in the world. The United Nations has its headquarters in New York City and the building is considered international territory. The United Nations is divided into five administrative bodies; The General Assembly which is the main deliberative body, the Security Council which decides certain resolutions for peace and security, The Economic and Social Council which aids in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development, the Secretariat which provides studies, information and facilities needed by the United Nations, and last but certainly not least is the International Court of Justice which serves as the primary judicial organ.

The United Nations was the successor to the League of Nations which was for the most part considered to be an incompetent organization and was not an effective governing body. In April of 1954, the United Nations Conference of International Organization began in San Francisco. 50 governments and many non governmental organizations such as Rotary International and Lions Clubs International all helped in drafting the Charter of the United Nations. In October of 1945 the United Nations became official after the Charter of the United Nations was ratified by the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and by a majority of the 46 other member states. These countries in the United Nations Security Council were France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The first meeting of the General Assembly took place in Westminster Central Hall in London, the location has since moved to the United Nations building in New York City.

The United Nations has had considerable success in the social arena, fostering human rights, economic development, decolonization, health, education, assisting refugees, and ensuring fair trade. The United Nations is quite remarkable, as they were able to garner such support and confidence from the very beginning. While there have still been wars, threats on international security, genocides, and a slew of other problems one cannot dismiss the effect that the United Nations has had. There may always be problems, however they would be magnified and multiply if it weren’t for international bodies such as the United Nations and their ability to facilitate discussion and dialogue among member states.

United Nations

The United Nations is an organization that includes every government on earth. Each country in the United Nations is referred to as a member state and form the United Nations General Assembly. The United Nations General Assembly is one of the five man facets of the United Nations. The United Nations General Assembly oversees the budget of the UN, appoints the non-permanent members of the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the UN, and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. The United Nations General Assembly meets under its president or secretary general in regular yearly sessions from September to December. Though those are the usual meeting times, they reconvene for special and emergency sessions. The United Nations General Assembly will vote on important world decisions such as recommendations on peace and security, election of members to organs, admission, suspension, and expulsion matters.

The General Assembly will vote n many resolutions brought forth by sponsoring states. These resolutions are usually symbolic statements surrounding a world issue; they can range anywhere to the proliferation of arms to ending genocide. A major disadvantage to the United Nations General Assembly is the lack of a legal and binding contract. While the United Nations General Assembly is representative of the international community, they have no real authority in enforcing laws and resolutions. However, the United Nations General Assembly does have a great deal of power and the notion that they are an organization that cannot enforce anything is false and should be disregarded. Furthermore, the United Nations General Assembly have the authority to take final decisions in areas such as the budget, but resolutions passed by the United Nations General Assembly may also be constitutive or proof of international customary law and therefore binding on the member states.

Within the United Nations General Assembly, there are six main sub committees; The First Committee: Disarmament and International Security, The Second Committee: Economic and Financial, The Third Committee: Social, Cultural, and Humanitarian, The Fourth Committee: Special Political and Decolonization, The Fifth Committee: Administrative and Budgetary, and The Sixth Committee: Legal.

While there are regularly scheduled meetings for the United Nations General Assembly, they may convene for special sessions. For instance, they may meet at the request of the United Nations Security Council; another special session was for the Millennium Development Goals. There are also emergency special sessions that convene during times of urgency and will meet many times within the next one or two days regarding matters of international peace and security.

The United Nations General Assembly is truly a stunning body of people and we owe them a great deal for being able to change the world. While there many always be problems in the world, the United Nations General Assembly has been able to thwart certain issues from coming into play and it has also offered a forum for world leaders to discuss matters at hand and attempt to resolve any problems they may have.

UN Peacekeepers

Peacekeeping is defined by the United Nations as ways to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. UN peacekeepers are also known as Blue Berets, “monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed.” UN peacekeepers will provide assistance in the form of confidence building measures, power sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Blue berets consist of soldiers, civilian police officers, and other civilian personnel. The United Nations Charter gives the Security Council the power and responsibility to take action to maintain international peace and security, therefore if UN peacekeepers are sent anywhere; it will be at the request of the Security Council.

UN peacekeepers are mostly sent to operations that have already been developed and implemented by the organization itself, and the troops serve under the UN. Peacekeepers should not be confused with soldiers, as their primary role is not to fight. Blue Berets help facilitate the peace process after it has already been established. Though UN peacekeepers are now armed, it was not the case initially which as a great deal to do with their duties and the nature of their work.
Since the conception of the United Nations in 1948, approximately 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations. As of March 2007, the ten largest contributors of UN peacekeepers are Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Jordan, Uruguay, Italy, Ghana, Nigeria, and France. In Africa, the Blue Berets have been sent to places such as Rwanda during their civil war which was in reality a genocide, Somalia during their civil war, and Sierra Leone during their civil war. In the Americas, UN peacekeepers have helped maintain peace in Central America during the Nicaraguan Civil War and Haiti on several occasions. Blue Berets were sent to Haiti in 1991 during a coup and military rule as well as for stabilizing Haiti’s new democracy and later on to train their police. In Asia, UN peacekeepers were sent in the late 1980s during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and most recently between years 2002-2005 to East Timor due to Indonesian invasion and occupation. In Europe, there were plenty of Blue Berets sent to the Balkan States such as the former Yugoslavia and Bosnia in the 1990s. Also in the 1990s, Blue Berets helped maintain peacekeeping operations in Croatia after they had gone through a war. UN peacekeepers were also sent to the Middle East on various occasions such as during the Gulf War and the Iran-Iraq war. Currently the Blue Berets are facilitating peace keeping operations in Sudan, Liberia, Haiti, Cyprus, East Timor, and Lebanon.

While many doubt the success of UN peacekeepers, it is important to keep in mind that they are not there to wage a war and come out victorious. Blue Berets are sent to certain locations where the political climate is still somewhat volatile and they are there to further the peacekeeping process. There are international conflicts that need attention of this nature; Blue Berets are unbiased peacekeepers and are a necessity in certain parts of the world.

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone has been a very troubled area for many years. In 1991, Foday Sankoh of the Revolutionary United Front initiated the Sierra Leone Civil War. In October of 1990, President Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to review the one party system that the country has since 1978. However, there was a tremendous amount of suspicion that Momoh was not serious and rule was blatantly abusing power. Government corruption and mismanagement of diamond resources were the two main reasons that civil war broke out in Sierra Leone. In Liberia, Sierra Leone’s neighbor there was a civil war going on which had an undeniable influence in the start of the civil war in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor, who was the leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia at the time allegedly helped form the Revolutionary United Front under the commander of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh. For helping with the creating of the RUF, Taylor received diamonds from Sierra Leone, one of their prized and lucrative natural resources. The RUF started attacking villages in Sierra Leone, and the government which was already suffering from a poor economy and corruption were unable to face the opposition. Within a month, RUF controlled most of the Eastern Province and forced the recruitment of child soldiers. As a response, some young soldiers from the Sierra Leonean army started a counter attack and exiled the incumbent president Momoh. These soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council. The NPRC was extremely inefficient and more and more of Sierra Leone fell to RUF soldiers. However, in retaliation the NPRC was able to hire hundreds of private mercenaries who then drove the RUF back to the borders of Sierra Leone.

While all this was occurring, there was a great deal of corruption within the NRPC, and its current leader Valentine Strasser was busted in a coup led by his own people, his replacement was Maada Bio. Maada Bio, reinstated the Constitution and called for presidential elections. Ahman Tejan Kabbah, of the Sierra Leone People’s Party won the elections and was in office with a cabinet and the NRPC was trying to legitimize their government. However, recently after Kabbah was ousted by the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. The head of AFRC, Koroma invited members of the RUF to join his government.

After many unsuccessful attempts to overthrow governments and seize power, the United Nations in 2000 finally decided to send peacekeepers to help bring back order and remove weapons from the rebels. In the ten year civil war, approximately 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone’s civil war. By January of 2002 the war was finally declared over and in May of that year Kabbah was reelected president. By 2004 the UN disarmament process was complete and they also backed a war crimes court and began holding trials for senior leaders from both sides of the war.

Sierra Leone

Diamonds from Sierra Leone are well-known amongst those in the jewelry industry as some of the best quality diamonds available today. However, this prized natural resource has also been wreaking havoc in Sierra Leone today and the diamond trade there is extremely perilous. Diamonds from Sierra Leone have been synonymous with brutality, violence, and conflict. This problem escalated in 1968 when Siaka Stevens became prime minister of Sierra Leone and recognized how lucrative the diamond trade industry was. Stevens made a very large profit out of illegal diamond mining and trading, and in the following years most diamond trade in Sierra Leone was illegal.

In 1991, Sierra Leone became an extremely volatile region as the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) started attacking the governments. While their “official” goal was to end crime and corruption, it became apparent that their interests lay in controlling the diamond mines. With RUF controlling all the diamond mines, labor conditions were extremely poor with very harsh punishment for slight mistakes. These diamonds from Sierra Leone as well as certain other African countries became known as blood diamonds or conflict diamonds. In the 1990s, approximately $125 million worth of rough diamonds were bought by just Europe. This means that this staggering amount of money went to fund the RUF who killed thousands of people during the civil war in Sierra Leone.

After almost a decade of fighting and the issue of conflict diamonds becoming an increasing problem, the United Nations sent a mission to Sierra Leone in 1999. Since 1999, the United Nations has implemented programs to curb illegal diamond trading activities in Sierra Leone. One program put into place was the Kimberly Process Certification Scheme which “requires a paper trail that certifies the origin of rough diamonds.” This will ultimately reduce the flow of blood or conflict diamonds from countries such as Sierra Leone. However, an industry as lucrative as the diamond trade industry still has a place for corruption and illegal trade activities. There will always be a market for this and it is quite simple to forge a certificate, and blood diamond can still be smuggled into a “clean” country.

While the problem has definitely been curtailed, it is still a problem as corruption still exists and in an industry this lucrative people will always try to find a way around any legal processes. There are certain retailers that claim to sell only “clean” diamonds, as far as we know it may or may not be true but if you are in the market for a diamond do some research to see which retailers do not carry conflict diamonds. It is a starting point, and many diamond retailers take the UN definition of conflict free one step further and ensure there are also no human rights abuses involved. This situation has improved greatly over the past decade and soon more and more diamonds will have legitimate certificates and corruption will hopefully be on the decrease.

United Nations

The United Nations Security Council is one of the main organizations in the United Nations and their main duty is to maintain international peace and security. The exact responsibilities and power of the United Nations Security Council has been outlined in the United Nations Charter. The United Nations Security Council has authority in matters of establishing peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action.

The United Nations Security Council consists of five permanent members; these are China, France, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, and United States. As a member of the United Nations Security Council, these countries have the power to veto any resolution. The five members of the United Nations Security Council were countries that emerged victorious after WWII. Furthermore, the members of the United Nations Security Council are also the only members that have been recognized for their possession of nuclear weapons under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, although this is not a prerequisite or condition. There are also rotating positions in the United Nations Security Council. There are ten non permanent members in the United Nations Security Council and they are chosen based on various regions of the world. At some point or another, almost every United Nations member county is a member of a regional grouping.

The ten non permanent members serve two year terms and half are replaced each year in annual elections. Each region votes for its own representatives and the United Nations General Assembly will approve the selections. From January 1st, 2008 to December 31st 2009 are Burkina Faso, Costa Rica, Croatia, Libya, and Vietnam. The other five members started on January 1st, 2009 and will end their term on December 31st, 2010; these countries are Austria, Japan, Mexico, Turkey, and Uganda. The president of the Security Council has to set the agenda, preside at its meetings and oversee any crisis. The president of the Security Council also has to authority to issue both presidential statements and notes, which are used to make declarations of intent that the full Security Council can then pursue. The Presidency rotates monthly in alphabetical order of the Security Council member nations. One of the most important powers of the United Nations Security Council is the power they have over decisions. According to the United Nations Charter, Security Council decisions on all substantive matters require the affirmative votes of nine out of fifteen members. A negative vote or veto by a permanent member prevents the adoption of a proposal even if it has already received the nine affirmative votes. Their veto power is for lack of a better term, a perk of being a member of the Security Council. Being a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council gives you a great deal of influence in international proceedings therefore there have been many bids from countries to become permanent members. There has been discussion of increasing the number of permanent members. The countries who have made the strongest bids as of now are Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. This situation is still being discussed.

The United Nations Security Council is a very powerful body and must be respected as their decisions will have a significant influence in the world.

Public International Law

Public international law deals with the structure and conduct of states and intergovernmental organizations. Public international law may also affect multinational corporations and individuals. Public international law has increased in use and importance tremendously during the 20th century due to increase in global trade, armed conflict, environmental deterioration, human rights violations, international transportation, and a boom in global communications. Within public international law, there are two main branches. These are the law of nations and international agreements and conventions. In public international law, the framework and criteria for acknowledging states as the main actors in a legal system that goes beyond borders is established. These laws delve into areas such as acquisition of territory, state immunity, and the interaction between states and international laws. Public international law also has jurisdiction over matters such as group rights, the treatment of aliens, the rights of refugees, international crimes, nationality problems, and human rights.

Furthermore, public international law also covers grounds such as global environment, the global commons such as international waters, outer space, global communications, and world trade. Within public international law, all states are sovereign thus considered equal.
Public international law has a great deal of grey areas as there is no established legal and judicial system for the mediation of disputes, nor is there a strict penal code it is a difficult task for lawyers to carry out their tasks. Initially, states and the Holy See were the main subjects of international law. However, with the increase in international organizations over the last century, international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and international trade laws have also made its way into public international law.

In public international law, there has been a history of tension between sovereign states and the law. Majority of people view the state as the final say in international affairs and they should be given the right to voluntarily enter into treaties of international law while also being able to maintain the right of seeking and following their own counsel. Furthermore, each nation has its own interpretations on laws based on their customs, traditions, and political situations. The final say in these matters belong to the courts who will decide what the laws mean, and in certain cases where the courts do not have a say, it is the responsibility of the states to interpret the law for themselves.

Since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching state, some ignore certain aspects of public international law, therefore it is difficult to enforce anything. In the United Nations, there has been a movement called “Uniting for Peace” and it is a resolution that called for nation states to agree to public international law and do their level best to adhere to the guidelines.
Public international law is extremely important, therefore many aspects have been taken from it and have manifested itself in the form of customary law, and other laws that the International Court of Justice upholds.